23/9/2008 ·
16-bit operating environments
The early versions of Windows were often thought of as just graphical user interfaces, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS and used it for file system services.[3] However, even the earliest 16-bit Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions, notably, having their own executable file format and providing their own device drivers (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound) for applications. Unlike MS-DOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking. Finally, Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allowed it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources were swapped in and thrown away when memory became scarce, and data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished processor control, typically waiting for user input.[citation needed] 16-bit Windows versions include Windows 1.0 (1985), Windows 2.0 (1987) and its close relatives, Windows/286-Windows/386.
Hybrid 16/32-bit operating environments
Windows/386 introduced a 32-bit protected mode kernel and virtual machine monitor. For the duration of a Windows session, it created one or more virtual 8086 environments and provided device virtualization for the video card, keyboard, mouse, timer and interrupt controller inside each of them. The user-visible consequence was that it became possible to preemptively multitask multiple MS-DOS environments in separate windows, although graphical MS-DOS applications required full screen mode. Also, Windows applications were multi-tasked cooperatively inside one such virtual 8086 environment.
Windows 3.0 (1990) and Windows 3.1 (1992) improved the design, mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) which allowed them to share arbitrary devices between multitasked DOS windows.[citation needed] Also, Windows applications could now run in protected mode (when Windows was running in Standard or 386 Enhanced Mode), which gave them access to several megabytes of memory and removed the obligation to participate in the software virtual memory scheme. They still ran inside the same address space, where the segmented memory provided a degree of protection, and multi-tasked cooperatively. For Windows 3.0, Microsoft also rewrote critical operations from C into assembly, making this release faster and less memory-hungry than its predecessors.[citation needed]
Hybrid 16/32-bit operating systems
With the introduction of the 32-bit Windows for Workgroups 3.11, Windows was able to stop relying on DOS for file management.[citation needed] Leveraging this, Windows 95 introduced Long File Names, reducing the 8.3 filename DOS environment to the role of a boot loader. MS-DOS was now bundled with Windows; this notably made it (partially) aware of long file names when its utilities were run from within Windows. The most important novelty was the possibility of running 32-bit multi-threaded preemptively multitasked graphical programs. However, the necessity of keeping compatibility with 16-bit programs meant the GUI components were still 16-bit only and not fully reentrant, which resulted in reduced performance and stability.
There were three releases of Windows 95 (the first in 1995, then subsequent bug-fix versions in 1996 and 1997, only released to OEMs, which added extra features such as FAT32 and primitive USB support). Microsoft's next OS was Windows 98; there were two versions of this (the first in 1998 and the second, named "Windows 98 Second Edition", in 1999). In 2000, Microsoft released Windows Me (Me standing for Millennium Edition), which used the same core as Windows 98 but adopted some aspects of Windows 2000 and removed the option boot into DOS mode. It also added a new feature called System Restore, allowing the user to set the computer's settings back to an earlier date.
32-bit operating systems
The NT family of Windows systems was fashioned and marketed for higher reliability business use, and was unencumbered by any Microsoft DOS patrimony.[citation needed] The first release was Windows NT 3.1 (1993, numbered "3.1" to match the Windows version and to one-up OS/2 2.1,[citation needed] IBM's flagship OS co-developed by Microsoft and was Windows NT's main competitor at the time), which was followed by NT 3.5 (1994), NT 3.51 (1995), NT 4.0 (1996), and Windows 2000 (essentially NT 5.0). NT 4.0 was the first in this line to implement the "Windows 95" user interface (and the first to include Windows 95's built-in 32-bit runtimes). Microsoft then moved to combine their consumer and business operating systems. Windows XP, coming in both home and professional versions (and later niche market versions for tablet PCs and media centers) improved stability, user experience and backwards compatibility. Then, Windows Server 2003 brought Windows Server up to date with Windows XP. Since then, a new version, Windows Vista was released and Windows Server 2008, released on February 27, 2008, brings Windows Server up to date with Windows Vista.
Windows CE, Microsoft's offering in the mobile and embedded markets, is also a true 32-bit operating system that offers various services for all sub-operating workstations.
64-bit operating systems
Windows NT included support for several different platforms before the x86-based personal computer became dominant in the professional world. Versions of NT from 3.1 to 4.0 variously supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000, some of which were 64-bit processors, although the operating system treated them as 32-bit processors.
With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture, which is referred to as IA-64, Microsoft released new versions of Windows to support it. Itanium versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 (32-bit) counterparts. On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and x64 versions of Windows Server 2003 to support the AMD64/Intel64 (or x64 in Microsoft terminology) architecture. Microsoft dropped support for the Itanium version of Windows XP in 2005. Windows Vista is the first end-user version of Windows that Microsoft has released simultaneously in 32-bit and x64 editions. Windows Vista does not support the Itanium architecture. The modern 64-bit Windows family comprises AMD64/Intel64 versions of Windows Vista, and Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008, in both Itanium and x64 editions.
History
-
Microsoft has taken two parallel routes in its operating systems. One route has been for the home user and the other has been for the professional IT user. The dual routes have generally led to home versions having greater multimedia support and less functionality in networking and security, and professional versions having inferior multimedia support and better networking and security.[citation needed]
The first version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released in November 1985, lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity, and was to compete with Apple's own operating system.[citation needed] Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS. Microsoft Windows version 2.0 was released in November, 1987 and was slightly more popular than its predecessor. Windows 2.03 (release date January 1988) had changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows. The result of this change led to Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights.[9][10]
Microsoft Windows version 3.0, released in 1990, was the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months.[11][12] It featured improvements to the user interface and to multitasking capabilities. It received a facelift in Windows 3.1, made generally available on March 1, 1992. Windows 3.1 support ended on December 31, 2001.[13]
In July 1993, Microsoft released Windows NT based on a new kernel. NT was considered to be the professional OS and was the first Windows version to utilize preemptive multitasking.[citation needed]. Windows NT would later be retooled to also function as a home operating system, with Windows XP.
On August 24, 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, a new, and major, consumer version that made further changes to the user interface, and also used preemptive multitasking. Windows 95 was designed to replace not only Windows 3.1, but also Windows for Workgroups, and MS-DOS. It was also the first Windows operating system to use Plug and Play capabilities. The changes Windows 95 brought to the desktop were revolutionary, as opposed to evolutionary, such as those in Windows 98 and Windows Me. Mainstream support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2000 and extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001.[14]
The next in the consumer line was Microsoft Windows 98 released on June 25, 1998. It was substantially criticized for its slowness and for its unreliability compared with Windows 95, but many of its basic problems were later rectified with the release of Windows 98 Second Edition in 1999.[citation needed] Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002 and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.[15]
As part of its "professional" line, Microsoft released Windows 2000 in February 2000. The consumer version following Windows 98 was Windows Me (Windows Millennium Edition). Released in September 2000, Windows Me implemented a number of new technologies for Microsoft: most notably publicized was "Universal Plug and Play."
In October 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, a version built on the Windows NT kernel that also retained the consumer-oriented usability of Windows 95 and its successors. This new version was widely praised in computer magazines.[16] It shipped in two distinct editions, "Home" and "Professional", the former lacking many of the superior security and networking features of the Professional edition. Additionally, the first "Media Center" edition was released in 2002,[17] with an emphasis on support for DVD and TV functionality including program recording and a remote control. Mainstream support for Windows XP will continue until April 14, 2009 and extended support will continue until April 8, 2014.[18]
In April 2003, Windows Server 2003 was introduced, replacing the Windows 2000 line of server products with a number of new features and a strong focus on security; this was followed in December 2005 by Windows Server 2003 R2.
On January 30, 2007 Microsoft released Windows Vista. It contains a number of new features, from a redesigned shell and user interface to significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features. It is available in a number of different editions, and has been subject to some criticism.[citation needed]
Timeline of releases
Security
Worldwide Regional Directors Meeting Feb 1995
Security has been a hot topic with Windows for many years, and even Microsoft itself has been the victim of security breaches.[citation needed] Consumer versions of Windows were originally designed for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network connection, and did not have security features built in from the outset. Windows NT and its successors are designed for security (including on a network) and multi-user PCs, but are not designed with Internet security in mind as much since, when it was first developed in the early 1990s, Internet use was less prevalent. These design issues combined with flawed code (such as buffer overflows) and the popularity of Windows means that it is a frequent target of worm and virus writers. In June 2005, Bruce Schneier's Counterpane Internet Security reported that it had seen over 1,000 new viruses and worms in the previous six months.[20]
Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service approximately once a month (usually the second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.[21] In Windows 2000 (SP3 and later), Windows XP and Windows Server 2003, updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so. As a result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Service Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003, were installed by users more quickly than it otherwise might have been.[22]
Windows Defender
On January 6, 2005, Microsoft released a beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the previously released Giant AntiSpyware. On February 14, 2006, Microsoft AntiSpyware became Windows Defender with the release of beta 2. Windows Defender is a freeware program designed to protect against spyware and other unwanted software. Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 users who have genuine copies of Microsoft Windows can freely download the program from Microsoft's web site, and Windows Defender ships as part of Windows Vista.[23]
Third-party analysis
In an article based on a report by Symantec,[24] internetnews.com has described Microsoft Windows as having the "fewest number of patches and the shortest average patch development time of the five operating systems it monitored in the last six months of 2006."[25] And the number of vulnerabilities found in Windows has significantly increased— Windows: 12+, Red Hat + Fedora: 2, Mac OS X: 1, HP-UX: 2, Solaris: 1.
A study conducted by Kevin Mitnick and marketing communications firm Avantgarde in 2004 found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before it was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched Windows Server 2003 system was compromised after being connected to the internet for 8 hours.[26] However, it is important to note that this study does not apply to Windows XP systems running the Service Pack 2 update (released in late 2004), which vastly improved the security of Windows XP. The computer that was running Windows XP Service Pack 2 was not compromised. The AOL National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004 determined that 80% of Windows users were infected by at least one spyware/adware product.[27] Much documentation is available describing how to increase the security of Microsoft Windows products. Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a hardware or software firewall, running anti-virus and anti-spyware software, and installing patches as they become available through Windows Update.[citation needed]
Windows Lifecycle Policy
Microsoft has stopped releasing updates and hotfixes for many old Windows operating systems, including all versions of Windows 9x and earlier versions of Windows NT. Windows versions prior to XP are no longer supported, with the exception of Windows 2000, which is currently in the Extended Support Period, that will end on July 13, 2010. Windows XP versions prior to SP2 are no longer supported either. Also, support for Windows XP 64-bit Edition ended after the release of the more recent Windows XP Professional x64 Edition.[citation needed] No new updates are created for unsupported versions of Windows.
Emulation software
Emulation allows the use of some Windows applications without using Microsoft Windows. These include:
- Wine - a free and open source software implementation of the Windows API, allowing one to run many Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including Linux. Wine is technically not an emulator but a "compatibility layer";[28] while an emulator effectively 'pretends' to be a different CPU, Wine instead makes use of Windows-style APIs to 'simulate' the Windows environment directly.
- CrossOver - A Wine package with licensed fonts. Its developers are regular contributors to Wine, and focus on Wine running officially supported applications.
- Cedega - TransGaming Technologies' proprietary fork of Wine, designed specifically for running games written for Microsoft Windows under Linux.
- Darwine - This project intends to port and develop Wine as well as other supporting tools that will allow Darwin and Mac OS X users to run Microsoft Windows applications, and to provide Win32 API compatibility at application source code level.
- ReactOS - An open-source OS that is intended to run the same software as Windows, originally designed to imitate Windows NT 4.0, now aiming at Windows XP compatibility. It has been in the development stage since 1996.
License refunds
In 2006 a British man purchased a Dell Inspiron 640m laptop bundled with Microsoft Windows XP Home SP2 preinstalled, but did not accept Microsoft's End User License Agreement (EULA). In one week after his response, the customer received a "goodwill" refund of GBP £47 (£55.23 including tax) from Dell for a no Windows option, as the copy of the system was an "unused product" according to the software license agreement. Dell had not asked for the installation medium to be returned and commented that although it doesn't have a Windows refund program, giving a refund in an individual case isn't forbidden either.[29][30][31]
In a civil suit Italian court rejected HP's argument that the licensing conditions had been set unilaterally by Microsoft and ruled HP to reimburse customer the amount of 90 euros for unused Windows XP bundled with Compaq notebook. The court was of the opinion that HP had to know about the conditions, because they most likely constituted part of the agreement between them and Microsoft. It also found the fact that computers without an operating system are available on the market to be irrelevant. According Süddeutsche Zeitung, a German Dell customer replaced the preinstalled Windows with Linux and had been credited the amount of 78 euros for operating system and a further unspecified Microsoft program.[32] A French court ruled Acer to refund the purchase price of preinstalled laptop software, of which was 135.20 euros for Windows XP Home.[33]
23/9/2008 ·
1976 to 1980: The early years
The
Apple I, Apple's first product. Sold as an assembled circuit board, it lacked basic features such as a keyboard, monitor, and case. The owner of this unit added a keyboard and a wooden case.
Apple was established on April 1, 1976 by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne,[9] to sell the Apple I personal computer kit. They were hand-built by Wozniak [10] [11] and first shown to the public at the Homebrew Computer Club. [12] The Apple I was sold as a motherboard (with CPU, RAM, and basic textual-video chips)—not what is today considered a complete personal computer.[13] The Apple I went on sale in July 1976 and was market-priced at US$666.66. [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]
Apple was incorporated January 3, 1977 [4] without Wayne, who sold his share of the company back to Jobs and Wozniak for $800. Mike Markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of US$250,000 during the incorporation of Apple.[19] [20]
The Apple II was introduced on April 16, 1977 at the first West Coast Computer Faire. It differed from its major rivals, the TRS-80 and Commodore PET, because it came with color graphics and an open architecture. While early models used ordinary cassette tapes as storage devices, they were superseded by the introduction of a 5 1/4 inch floppy disk drive and interface, the Disk II. [21]
The Apple II was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first "killer app" of the business world—the VisiCalc spreadsheet program. [22] VisiCalc created a business market for the Apple II, and gave home users an additional reason to buy an Apple II—compatibility with the office.[22] According to Brian Bagnall, Apple exaggerated its sales figures and was a distant third place to Commodore and Tandy until VisiCalc came along. [23] [24]
By the end of the 1970s, Apple had a staff of computer designers and a production line. The Apple II was succeeded by the Apple III in May 1980 as the company competed with IBM and Microsoft in the business and corporate computing market. [25]
Jobs and several Apple employees including Jef Raskin visited Xerox PARC in December 1979 to see the Xerox Alto. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for US$1 million in pre-IPO Apple stock. [26] Jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a GUI, and development of a GUI began for the Apple Lisa. [27]
1981 to 1985: Lisa and Macintosh
Steve Jobs began working on the Apple Lisa in 1978 but in 1982 he was pushed from the Lisa team due to infighting, and took over Jef Raskin's low-cost-computer project, the Macintosh. A turf war broke out between Lisa's "corporate shirts" and Jobs' "pirates" over which product would ship first and save Apple. Lisa won the race in 1983 and became the first personal computer sold to the public with a GUI, but was a commercial failure due to its high price tag and limited software titles. [28]
In 1984, Apple next launched the Macintosh. Its debut was announced by the now famous US$1.5 million television commercial, "1984." It was directed by Ridley Scott, aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl XVIII on January 22, 1984, [29] and is now considered a watershed event for Apple's success [30] and a masterpiece. [31] [32]
The Macintosh initially sold well, but follow-up sales were not strong.[33] The machine's fortunes changed with the introduction of the LaserWriter, the first laser printer to be offered at a reasonable price point, and PageMaker, an early desktop publishing package. The Mac was particularly powerful in this market due to its advanced graphics capabilities, which were already necessarily built-in to create the intuitive Macintosh GUI. It has been suggested that the combination of these three products was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market. [34] As desktop publishing became widespread, Apple's sales reached new highs and the company had its initial public offering on September 7, 1984.
A power struggle developed between Jobs and new CEO John Sculley in 1985. [35] Apple's board of directors sided with Sculley and Jobs was removed from his managerial duties.[33] Jobs resigned from Apple and founded NeXT Inc. the same year. [36]
Apple's sustained growth during the early 1980s was partly due to its leadership in the education sector, attributed to their adaptation of the programming language LOGO, used in many schools with the Apple II. The drive into education was accentuated in California with the donation of one Apple II and one Apple LOGO software package to each public school in the state.
1986 to 1993: Rise and fall
- See also: Timeline of Apple II Family and Timeline of Macintosh models
Having learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky Macintosh Portable in 1989, Apple introduced the PowerBook in 1991, which established the modern form and ergonomic layout of the laptop computer. [37] The same year, Apple introduced System 7, a major upgrade to the operating system which added color to the interface and introduced new networking capabilities. It remained the architectural basis for Mac OS until 2001.
The success of the PowerBook and other products led to increasing revenue.[35] For some time, it appeared that Apple could do no wrong, introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process. The magazine MacAddict named the period between 1989 to 1991 the "first golden age" of the Macintosh.
Following the success of the LC, Apple introduced the Centris line, a low end Quadra offering, and the ill-fated Performa line which was sold in several confusing configurations and software bundles to avoid competing with the various consumer outlets such as Sears, Price Club and Wal-Mart, the primary dealers for these models. The end result was disastrous for Apple as consumers did not understand the difference between models.
During this time Apple experimented with a number of other failed consumer targeted products including digital cameras, portable CD audio players, speakers, video consoles and TV appliances. Enormous resources were also invested in the problem plagued Newton division based on John Sculley's unrealistic market forecasts. Ultimately, all of this proved be too-little-too-late for Apple as their market share and stock prices continued to slide.
Apple saw the Apple II Family as too expensive to produce, while taking away sales from the low end Macintosh. [38] In 1990 Apple released the Macintosh LC with a single expansion slot for the Apple IIe Card to migrate Apple II users to the Macintosh platform. [39] Apple stopped selling the Apple IIe in 1993.
Microsoft continued to gain market share with Windows, focusing on delivering software with cheap commodity PCs while Apple was delivering a richly engineered, but expensive, experience. [40] Apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response. Instead they sued Microsoft for using a graphical user interface similar to the Apple Lisa in Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation. [41] The lawsuit dragged on for years before being thrown out of court. At the same time, a series of major product flops and missed deadlines destroyed Apple's reputation and Sculley was replaced by Michael Spindler. [42]
1994 to 1997: Attempts at reinvention
The
Apple Newton was Apple's first foray into the
PDA markets, as well as one of the first in the industry. A financial flop, it helped pave the way for the
Palm Pilot and Apple's own
iPhone in the future.
By the early 1990s, Apple was developing alternative platforms to the Macintosh, such as the A/UX. The Macintosh platform was becoming outdated since it was not built for multitasking, and several important software routines were programmed directly into the hardware. In addition, Apple was facing competition from OS/2 and UNIX vendors like Sun Microsystems. The Macintosh would need to be replaced by a new platform, or reworked to run on more powerful hardware. [43]
In 1994, Apple allied with IBM and Motorola in the AIM alliance. The goal was to create a new computing platform (the PowerPC Reference Platform), which would use IBM and Motorola hardware coupled with Apple's software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind, thus countering Microsoft. The same year, Apple introduced the Power Macintosh, the first of many Apple computers to use IBM's PowerPC processor. [44]
In 1996, Michael Spindler was replaced by Gil Amelio as CEO. Gil Amelio made many changes at Apple, including massive layoffs. [45] After multiple failed attempts to improve Mac OS, first with the Taligent project, then later with Copland and Gershwin, Amelio chose to purchase NeXT and its NeXTSTEP operating system, bringing Steve Jobs back to Apple as an advisor. [46] On July 9, 1997, Gil Amelio was ousted by the board of directors after overseeing a three-year record-low stock price and crippling financial losses. Jobs became the interim CEO and began restructuring the company's product line.
At the 1997 Macworld Expo, Steve Jobs announced that Apple would join Microsoft to release new versions of Microsoft Office for the Macintosh, and that Microsoft made a US$150 million investment in non-voting Apple stock. [47]
On November 10, 1997, Apple introduced the Apple Store, tied to a new build-to-order manufacturing strategy. [48] [49]
1998 to 2005: New beginnings
On August 15, 1998, Apple introduced a new all-in-one computer reminiscent of the Macintosh 128K: the iMac. The iMac design team was led by Jonathan Ive, who would later design the iPod and the iPhone. [50] [51] The iMac featured current technology and a groundbreaking design. It sold close to 800,000 units in its first five months and returned Apple to profitability for the first time since 1993. [52]
Through this period, Apple purchased several companies to create a portfolio of professional and consumer-oriented digital production software. In 1998, Apple announced the purchase of Macromedia's Final Cut software, signaling its expansion into the digital video editing market. [53] The following year, Apple released two video editing products: iMovie for consumers, and Final Cut Pro for professionals, the latter of which has gone on to be a significant video-editing program, with 800,000 registered users in early 2007. [54] In 2002 Apple purchased Nothing Real for their advanced digital compositing application Shake, [55] as well as Emagic for their music productivity application Logic, which led to the development of their consumer-level GarageBand application. [56] [57] iPhoto's release the same year completed the iLife suite. [58]
Mac OS X, based on NeXT's OPENSTEP and BSD Unix was released on March 24, 2001, after several years of development. Aimed at consumers and professionals alike, Mac OS X aimed to combine the stability, reliability and security of Unix with the ease of use afforded by an overhauled user interface. To aid users in moving migrating from Mac OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of OS 9 applications through Mac OS X's Classic environment. [59]
The entrance of the Apple Store on
Fifth Avenue in
New York City is a glass cube, housing a cylindrical elevator and a spiral staircase that leads into the subterranean store.
On May 19, 2001, Apple opened the first official Apple Retail Stores in Virginia and California. [60] The same year, Apple introduced the iPod portable digital audio player. The product was phenomenally successful — over 100 million units were sold within six years. [61] [62] In 2003, Apple's iTunes Store was introduced, offering online music downloads for US$0.99 a song and integration with the iPod. The service quickly became the market leader in online music services, with over 5 billion downloads by June 19th 2008. [63]
Since 2001 Apple's design team has progressively abandoned the use of translucent colored plastics first used in the iMac G3. This began with the titanium PowerBook and was followed by the white polycarbonate iBook and the flat-panel iMac. [64] [65]
2005 to present: The Intel partnership
-
The
MacBook Pro (15.4" widescreen) was Apple's first laptop with an Intel microprocessor. It was announced in January 2006 and is aimed at the professional market.
In the Worldwide Developers Conference keynote address on June 6, 2005, Steve Jobs announced that Apple would begin producing Intel-based Mac computers in 2006. [66] On January 10, 2006, the new MacBook Pro and iMac became the first Apple computers to utilize Intel's Core Duo CPU. By August 7, 2006 Apple had transitioned the entire Mac product line to Intel chips, over 1 year sooner than announced. [66] The Power Mac, iBook and Powerbook brands were retired during the transition, the Mac Pro, Macbook and Macbook Pro becoming their respective successors.[67][68]
Apple also introduced Boot Camp to help users install Windows XP on their Intel Macs alongside Mac OS X. [69]
Apple's success during this period was evident in its stock price. Between early 2003 and 2006, the price of Apple's stock increased more than tenfold, from around US$6 per share (split-adjusted) to over US$80. In January 2006, Apple's market cap surpassed that of Dell. [70] Nine years prior, Dell's CEO Michael Dell said that if he ran Apple he would "shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders." [71]
Delivering his keynote at Macworld on January 9, 2007, Steve Jobs announced that Apple Computer, Inc. would from that point on be known as Apple Inc. The event also saw the announcement of the iPhone and the Apple TV.[72] The following day, Apple shares hit US$97.80, an all-time high. In May, Apple's share price passed the US$100 mark. [73]
On February 7, 2007, Apple indicated that it would sell music on the iTunes Store without DRM (which would allow tracks to be played on third-party players) if record labels would agree to drop the technology. [74] On April 2, 2007, Apple and EMI jointly announced the removal of DRM technology from EMI's catalog in the iTunes Store, effective in May. [75]
On July 11, 2008, Apple launched the App Store to sell third-party applications for the iPhone and iPod Touch. [76] Within a month, the store sold 60 million applications and brought in US$1 million daily on average, with Steve Jobs speculating that the App Store could become a billion-dollar business for Apple. [77] On August 13, 2008, Apple's market cap surpassed Google's. [78]
Current products
- See also: List of products discontinued by Apple Inc.
- See also: Timeline of Apple products
Mac and accessories
The
Mac mini, low-cost desktop computer.
- See also: Timeline of Apple Macintosh models, List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU type, and List of Apple Macintosh models by case type
- Mac mini, consumer sub-desktop computer introduced in January 2005.
- iMac, consumer all-in-one desktop computer that was first introduced by Apple in 1998. Its popularity helped revive the company's fortunes. [52]
- Mac Pro, workstation-class desktop computer introduced in August 2006.
- MacBook, consumer notebook introduced in 2006, available in white and black variants.
- MacBook Air, ultra-thin, ultra-portable notebook, introduced in January 2008.
- MacBook Pro, professional portable computer alternative to the MacBook, introduced in January 2006.
- Xserve, rack mounted, dual core, dual processor 1U server.
Apple sells a variety of computer accessories for Mac computers including the AirPort wireless networking products, Time Capsule, Apple Cinema Display, Mighty Mouse, the Apple Wireless Keyboard computer keyboard, and the Apple USB Modem.
iPod
-
On October 23, 2001, Apple introduced the iPod digital music player. It has evolved to include various models targeting the needs of different users. The iPod is the market leader in portable music players by a significant margin, with more than 100 million units shipped as of April 9, 2007.[79] Apple has partnered with Nike to introduce the Nike+iPod Sports Kit enabling runners to synchronize and monitor their runs with iTunes and the Nike+ website. Apple currently sells four variants of the iPod.
- iPod classic, portable media player introduced in 2001, with 120GB capacity.
- iPod nano, portable media player introduced in 2005, available in 8 and 16 GB models.
- iPod shuffle, digital audio player introduced in 2005, available in 1 and 2 GB models.
- iPod touch, portable media player introduced in September 2007, available in 8, 16 and 32 GB models.
iPhone
-
At the Macworld Conference & Expo in January 2007, Steve Jobs revealed the long anticipated[80] iPhone, a convergence of an Internet-enabled smartphone and iPod.[81] The iPhone combines a 2.5G quad band GSM and EDGE cellular phone with features found in hand held devices, running a scaled-down versions of Apple's Mac OS X, with various Mac OS X applications such as Safari and Mail. It also includes web-based and Dashboard apps such as Google Maps and Weather. The iPhone features a 3.5-inch (89 mm) touch screen display, 4 or 8 GB of memory, Bluetooth, and Wi-Fi (both "b" and "g").[82] The iPhone first became available on June 29, 2007 for $499 (4 GB) and $599 (8 GB).[83] On June 9, 2008, at WWDC 2008, Steve Jobs announced that the iPhone 3G would be available on July 11, 2008.[84] This version added support for 3G networking and assisted-GPS navigation, among other things.[85]
Apple TV
-
At the 2007 Macworld conference, Jobs demonstrated the Apple TV, (previously known as the iTV[86]), a set-top video device intended to bridge the sale of content from iTunes with high-definition televisions. The device links up to a user's TV and syncs, either via Wi-Fi or a wired network, with one computer's iTunes library and streams from an additional four. The Apple TV incorporates a 40 GB hard drive for storage, includes outputs for HDMI and component video, and plays video at a maximum resolution of 720p.[87] On May 31, 2007 a 160 GB drive was released alongside the existing 40 GB model[88] and on January 15, 2008 a software update was released, which allowed media to be purchased directly from the Apple TV. [89]
Software
- See also: List of Macintosh software
Apple develops its own operating system to run on Macs, Mac OS X, the latest version being Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard. Apple also independently develops computer software titles for its Mac OS X operating system. Much of the software Apple develops is bundled with its computers. An example of this is the consumer-oriented iLife software package which bundles iDVD, iMovie, iPhoto, iTunes, GarageBand, and iWeb. For presentation, page layout and word processing, iWork is available, which includes Keynote, Pages, and Numbers. iTunes, QuickTime media player, and Safari web browser are available as free downloads for both Mac OS X and Windows.
Apple also offers a range of professional software titles. Their range of server software includes the operating system Mac OS X Server; Apple Remote Desktop, a remote systems management application; WebObjects, Java Web application server; and Xsan, a Storage Area Network file system. For the professional creative market, there is Aperture for professional RAW-format photo processing; Final Cut Studio, a video production suite; Logic, a comprehensive music toolkit and Shake, an advanced effects composition program.
Apple also offers online services with MobileMe (formerly .Mac) which bundles personal web pages, email, Groups, iDisk, backup, iSync, and Learning Center online tutorials. MobileMe is a subscription-based internet suite that capitalizes on the ability to store personal data on an online server and thereby keep all web-connected devices in sync.[90]
Culture
Business
Apple was one of several highly successful companies founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions of what a corporate culture should look like in terms of organizational hierarchy (flat versus tall, casual versus formal attire, etc). Other highly successful firms with similar cultural aspects from the same time period include Southwest Airlines and Microsoft. Originally, the company stood in opposition to staid competitors like IBM more or less by default, thanks to the influence of its founders; Steve Jobs often walked around the office barefoot even after Apple was a Fortune 500 company. By the time of the "1984" TV ad, this trait had become a key way the company attempts differentiated itself from its competitors.[91]
As the company has grown and been led by a series of chief executives, each with his own idea of what Apple should be, some of its original character has arguably been lost, but Apple still has a reputation for fostering individuality and excel
17/9/2008 ·
Early history
In 1987, Thomas Knoll, a PhD student at the University of Michigan, began writing a program on his Macintosh Plus to display grayscale images on a monochrome display. This program, called Display, caught the attention of his brother John Knoll, an Industrial Light & Magic employee, who recommended Thomas turn it into a full-fledged image editing program. Thomas took a six month break from his studies in 1988 to collaborate with his brother on the program, which had been renamed ImagePro.[4] Later that year, Thomas renamed his program Photoshop and worked out a short-term deal with scanner manufacturer Barneyscan to distribute copies of the program with a slide scanner; a "total of about 200 copies of Photoshop were shipped" this way.[5]
During this time, John traveled to Silicon Valley and gave a demonstration of the program to engineers at Apple Computer Inc. and Russell Brown, art director at Adobe. Both showings were successful, and Adobe decided to purchase the license to distribute in September 1988.[4] While John worked on plug-ins in California, Thomas remained in Ann Arbor writing program code. Photoshop 1.0 was released in 1990 for Macintosh exclusively.[6]
Releases
- Further information: Adobe Photoshop release history
Continual revisions were made to Photoshop, with new versions released in the following years. In November 1992, a Microsoft Windows port of version 2.0 was released, and a year later it was ported to the SGI IRIX and Sun Solaris platforms. In September 1994, version 3.0 was released, which introduced layers and tabbed palettes. In February 2003, Photoshop shipped with the Camera RAW 1.x plug-in, which allowed users to import RAW formats from different digital cameras directly into Photoshop.[7]
In October 2004, Photoshop was renamed Adobe Photoshop CS. The name uses the abbreviation CS for products in Adobe Creative Suite. The logo focused around a feather rendered in shades of blue and green, which was also used in 9.0.[8] The 10th version, Photoshop CS3 was released on April 16, 2007, with a blue icon modeled after periodic table elements, matching the new icons of other Creative Suite products.
In January 2008, the Wine project announced official support for Photoshop CS2, allowing the Windows version of Photoshop CS2 to be used on Linux and other Unix platforms.
Photoshop is written in the C++ programming language.[9]
Features
- Further information: Comparison of raster graphics editors#Features
Photoshop has strong ties with other Adobe software for media editing, animation, and authoring. Files in Photoshop's native format, .PSD, can be exported to and from Adobe ImageReady, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Premiere Pro, After Effects, and Adobe Encore DVD to make professional standard DVDs and provide non-linear editing and special effects services, such as backgrounds, textures, and so on, for television, film, and the Web. For example, Photoshop CS broadly supports making menus and buttons for DVDs. For .PSD files exported as a menu or button, it only needs to have layers, nested in layer sets with a cuing format, and Adobe Encore DVD reads them as buttons or menus.
Photoshop revolves around editing pixels, unlike Adobe Illustrator which uses vectors. When an image is rendered into Photoshop, it is compiled by millions of single-colored pixels. At its core, Photoshop works by manipulating each individual pixel. Pixels are manipulated according to whichever tool is being used. In the case of other tools, such as Blending Modes, the pixels are modulated according to their relations with other pixels. Individual colors are encoded by a 3-part scale: red values, green values, and blue values (RGB). Each value is measured on a scale of 0 to 255, with saturation increasing proportionate to number scale. A value of Red: 255 Green: 0 Blue: 0 will be rendered as pure red. All 3 values at 255 will be rendered as black, all values at 0 will be rendered as white, etc.
Photoshop can utilize the color models RGB, lab, CMYK, grayscale, binary bitmap, and duotone. Photoshop has the ability to read and write raster and vector image formats such as: .EPS, .PNG, .GIF, .JPEG, Fireworks, etc. It also has several native file formats:
- The .PSD (Photoshop Document) format stores an image with support for most imaging options available in Photoshop. These include layers with masks, color spaces, ICC profiles, transparency, text, alpha channels and spot colors, Clipping paths, and duotone settings. This is in contrast to many other file formats (e.g. .EPS or .GIF) that restrict content to provide streamlined, predictable functionality. Photoshop's popularity means that the .PSD format is widely used, and it is supported to some extent by most competing software.
- The .PSB (Large Document Format) format is a newer version of .PSD designed for files over 2 gigabytes.
- The .PDD (PhotoDeluxe Document) format is a version of .PSD that only supports the features found in the discontinued PhotoDeluxe software.
CS3
Smart Layers display the filter without altering the original image (here on Mac OS X)
Photoshop CS3 is marketed with three main components of improvement over previous versions: "Work more productively, Edit with unrivaled power, and composite with breakthrough tools."[10] New features propagating productivity include streamlined interface, improved Camera Raw, better control over print options, enhanced PDF support, and better management with Adobe Bridge. Editing tools new to CS3 are the Clone Source palette and nondestructive Smart Filters, and other features such as the Brightness/Contrast adjustment and Vanishing Point module were enhanced. The Black and White adjustment option improves users control over manual grayscale conversions with a dialog box similar to that of Channel Mixer. Compositing is assisted with Photoshop's new Quick Selection and Refine Edge tools and improved image stitching technology.[10]
CS3 Extended contains all features of CS3 plus tools for editing and importing some 3D graphics file formats, enhancing video, and comprehensive image analysis tools, utilizing MATLAB integration and DICOM file support.[11]
The logo comprises white letters "Ps" on a gradient blue square.
Photoshop family
There are eight different products in the current Photoshop family.
- Photoshop CS3
- Photoshop CS3 Extended
- Photoshop Elements 6.0 for Macintosh
- Photoshop Elements 6.0 for Windows
- Photoshop Elements 6.0 & Adobe Premiere Elements 4.0
- Photoshop Express beta
- Photoshop Lightroom 2
- Photoshop CS4 (Stonehenge)
Internationalization and localization
Language availability
Adobe Photoshop CS3 is available in the following languages: Arabic (Middle Eastern version), Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Hebrew (Middle Eastern version), Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish [12]
Specific features for Arabic and Hebrew languages
The Middle Eastern/Hebrew and the Middle Eastern/Arabic versions are specifically developed for Arabic and Hebrew languages.
- Text Settings
- Photoshop Middle Eastern versions come with special settings for typing and laying out Arabic or Hebrew text, such as:
- Possibility to use Arabic, Persian or Hindi digits
- Use kashidas for letter spacing and full justification
- Set vowels/diacritics positioning
- Ligature option
- Justify text in three possible ways to get the results you want (Standard, Arabic, Naskh)
- Additional fonts
- Photoshop Middle Eastern versions support most fonts shipped with the OS as well as a large number of third party fonts widely used by graphic designers in the Middle Eastern regions. Photoshop Middle Eastern versions install one additional font that facilitates your work in Middle Eastern languages: WinSoft Pro, which is available in four styles: Medium, Medium Italic, Bold and Bold Italic.
- Bi-directional text flow
- In Photoshop Middle Eastern versions, the notion of right-to-left behaviour applies to several objects: Paragraph and Character. You can easily mix Right-to-Left and Left-to-Right Words and Paragraphs in a document.
- Dictionary and hyphenation module
- Photoshop Middle Eastern versions come with a comprehensive dictionary for Arabic allowing you to spell check Arabic text with a choice of rules, like Strict Aleef Hamza, Strict Final Yaa, both or none. Photoshop Middle Eastern version comes with a Dictionary and Hyphenation Module for Hebrew.
- Find/replace
- You can search for and change specific occurrences of Middle Eastern text. Photoshop Middle Eastern versions include an "Ignore Accent" option. When checked, the user can search for a string of text whether it contains some accents or not.
- Save for Web
- Special encodings have been added to allow this option to work with Middle Eastern languages.
- Contact Sheet II / Picture Gallery / Smart Quotes
- These options have been adapted to work correctly with Middle Eastern languages.
Plugins
-
Photoshop functionality can be extended by add-on programs called Photoshop plugins which act like mini-editors that modify the image. The most common type are filter plugins that provide various image effects. They are located in the 'Filter' menu: pre-installed plugins come first, and third-party plugins are placed below the separator.
Trademark
Adobe discourages use of "Photoshop" as a verb, as in using photoshopping to refer to photo editing, to prevent its trademark from becoming a genericized trademark[13]. Nevertheless, photoshop is commonly used as a verb.[14] Also commonly shortened to simply "shopped", this has become the modern replacement of "airbrushed".
Consumer market
Photoshop Family of products logo
While Photoshop is the industry standard image editing program for professional raster graphics and other digital art, its relatively high suggested retail price has led to a number of competing graphics tools being made available at lower prices for the amateur market, such as GIMP. To compete in this market, and to counter unusually high rates of piracy of its high end products, the company introduced a consumer-oriented version of Photoshop as Adobe Photoshop Elements. A more user-friendly interface and new tools such as the "red-eye" reduction brush were aimed firmly at the more casual image editor, although many professional features were omitted. Removing CMYK functionality, for example, made Elements unsuitable for commercial prepress work.[15]
17/9/2008 ·
Internationalization and localization
Language Availability
Adobe Illustrator CS3 is available in the following languages: Arabic (Middle Eastern version), Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, French, French (Canadian), German, Greek, Hebrew (Middle Eastern version), Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Spanish (Latin American), Swedish, Turkish,Indonesia, Ukrainian.
Adobe Illustrator Middle Eastern language versions available from WinSoft.[3].
Specific Features for Arabic and Hebrew languages
The Middle Eastern/Hebrew and the Middle Eastern/Arabic versions are specifically developed for Arabic and Hebrew languages.
Text Settings
Illustrator Middle Eastern versions come with special settings for typing and laying out Arabic or Hebrew text, such as:
- Possibility to use Arabic, Persian or Hindi digits
- Use kashidas for letter spacing and full justification
- Set vowels /diacritics positioning
- Ligature option
- Justify text in three possible ways: Standard, Arabic, Naskh
Additional Fonts
Illustrator Middle Eastern versions support most fonts shipped with the OS as well as a large number of third party fonts widely used by graphic designers in the Middle Eastern regions.
Illustrator Middle Eastern versions install one additional font that facilitates your work in Middle Eastern languages: WinSoft Pro, which is available in four styles: Medium, Medium Italic, Bold and Bold Italic.
Bi-directional Text flow
In Illustrator Middle Eastern versions, the notion of right-to-left behaviour applies to several objects: Story, Paragraph and Character. You can easily mix Right-to-Left and Left-to-Right Words, Paragraphs and Stories in a document.
Dictionary and Hyphenation Module
Illustrator Middle Eastern versions come with a comprehensive dictionary for Arabic allowing you to spell check Arabic text with a choice of rules, like Strict Aleef Hamza, Strict Final Yaa, both or none.
Illustrator Middle Eastern versions come with a Dictionary and Hyphenation Module for Hebrew.
Find / Replace
You can search for and change specific occurrences of Middle Eastern text. Illustrator Middle Eastern versions include a "Ignore Accent" option. When checked, the user can search for a string of text whether it contains some accents or not.
Import/Export Options for ME characters
Illustrator Middle Eastern versions include improved import and export options for RTF, Unicode, Word, Freehand, CorelDraw, PDF, SVG, PSD, EPS, EMF and DXF/DWG files including Middle Eastern text.
Encodings has been added for Middle Eastern characters to facilitate text import and export, Save for Web and DXF/DWG file import.
Freehand Hebrew text
Illustrator Middle Eastern versions come with an enhanced filter to import Macromedia Freehand Hebrew files.
The Middle Eastern versions are also available for Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe InDesign, Adobe InCopy, Adobe Dreamweaver and for Adobe Creative Suite (Design Standard, Design Premium, Web Premium).
17/9/2008 ·
InDesign and Leopard
Currently InDesign CS3 up to 5.0.3 does not seem to work correctly on Leopard (Mac OS X 10.5), as Adobe states: "InDesign CS3 may unexpectedly quit when using the Place, Save, Save As or Export commands using either the OS or Adobe dialog boxes. Unfortunately, there are no workarounds for these known issues." [1]
In forums this workaround has been reported to work.
[edit] Server Version
The server icon, purple text on white as opposed to the local software's white text on purple icon.
In October 2005, Adobe released "InDesign Server CS2", a modified version of InDesign (without user interface) for Windows and Macintosh server platforms. It does not provide any editing client; rather it is for use by developers in creating client-server solutions with the InDesign plug-in technology.[2] In March 2007 Adobe officially announced Adobe InDesign CS3 Server as part of the Adobe InDesign family.
17/9/2008 ·
Language Availability
Adobe InCopy is available in the following languages: Arabic (Middle Eastern version), Brazilian Portuguese, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew (Middle Eastern version), Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, Ukrainian.
Adobe InCopy Middle Eastern versions available from WinSoft [1], Adobe Systems’ Internationalization and localization partner.
The Middle Eastern versions are specifically developed for Arabic and Hebrew languages.
InCopy Middle Eastern versions come with special settings for laying out Arabic or Hebrew text, such as:
- Possibility to use Arabic, Persian or Hindi digits
- Use kashidas for letter spacing and full justification
- Ligature option
- Set vowels /diacritics positioning
- Justify text in three possible ways to get the results you want (Standard, Arabic, Naskh)
- Option to "Insert Special Character": three Hebrew characters (Geresh, Gershayim, Magaf) and an Arabic one (Kashida)
- Apply standard, Arabic or Hebrew styles for page, paragraph and footnote numbering
In InCopy Middle Eastern versions, the notion of right-to-left behaviour applies to several objects: Story, Paragraph, Character and Table. You can easily mix Right-to-Left and Left-to-Right Words, Paragraphs and Stories in a document.
InCopy Middle Eastern versions come with a comprehensive dictionary for Arabic allowing you to spell check Arabic text with a choice of rules, like Strict Aleef Hamza, Strict Final Yaa, both or none. Depending on your system capabilities, InCopy comes with a Dictionary and Hyphenation Module for Hebrew.
InCopy Middle Eastern versions support most fonts shipped with the OS as well as a large number of third party fonts widely used by graphic designers in the Middle Eastern regions.
You can search for and change specific occurrences of Middle Eastern characters, words, groups of words, or text formatted a certain way across a selection, one or more stories, a document, or multiple open documents. You can also search for other items, including OpenType attributes such as fractions and swashes.
InCopy Middle Eastern versions bring the capability of opening directly and converting QuarkXPress files, even using Arabic XT, Arabic Phonyx or Hebrew QXPressWay fonts, retaining the layout and content. InCopy Middle Eastern versions come with more than 50 import/export filters enabling you to place many kinds of images and Roman texts: Microsoft Word 97-98-2000 Import filter and Text Import filter
The Middle Eastern versions are also available for Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe InDesign, Adobe Dreamweaver, Adobe Creative Suite (Design Standard, Design Premium, Web Premium). ... Jafar
Although its title includes "CS3", the software is not included as part of Adobe's Creative Suite package. InCopy is now sold as a retail package, and may be ordered from Adobe, third party plug-in developers, or systems integrators.
17/9/2008 ·
Language Availability
Adobe Dreamweaver CS3 is available in the following languages: Arabic (Middle Eastern version), Persian, Chinese Simplified, Chinese Traditional, Czech, Dutch, English, French, German, Hebrew (Middle Eastern version), Italian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish.
Adobe Dreamweaver Middle Eastern language versions available from WinSoft[2].
[edit] Specific Features for Arabic and Hebrew languages
Dreamweaver Middle Eastern versions allow typing Arabic, Persian or Hebrew text (written from right to left) within the code view. Whether the text is fully Middle Eastern (written from right to left) or includes both English and Middle Eastern text (written left to right and right to left), it will be displayed properly in the browser.
The Middle Eastern versions are also available for Adobe Acrobat, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, Adobe InDesign, Adobe InCopy and for Adobe Creative Suite (Design Standard, Design Premium, Web Premium).
17/9/2008 ·
Adobe Director 11
Adobe Director Default Projector Icon
The first Director release under the Adobe brand features DirectX 9 and Unicode support and extended 3D capabilities based on the NVIDIA PhysX engine, as well as bitmap filters, enhanced video, audio and image file formats support, and Adobe Flash CS3 integration. Shockwave Player 11 was also announced.
17/9/2008 ·
Adobe has changed the names of the products in the Acrobat family regularly, also splitting-up, joining, or discontinuing products. Between version 3 and 5, Standard and Professional versions were one product simply called Adobe Acrobat.
As of July 2008[update], the current main members of the Adobe Acrobat family are:
- Adobe Reader 9
- Adobe Acrobat 9
- Adobe Acrobat 9 Standard
- Adobe Acrobat 9 Pro
- Adobe Acrobat 9 Pro Extended (includes Adobe Presenter)
- A growing collection of free web services launched via the Acrobat.com service such as Adobe Buzzword, Connect Now, Create PDF, and Share.
Adobe has never created a product called either Adobe Writer or Acrobat Writer, although they used to include a printer driver called PDFWriter, which is unrelated.
17/9/2008 ·
Nuclear warfare strategy is a way for either fighting or avoiding a nuclear war. The policy of trying to ward off a potential attack by a nuclear weapon from another country by threatening nuclear retaliation is known as the strategy of nuclear deterrence. The goal in deterrence is to always maintain a second strike status (the ability of a country to respond to a nuclear attack with one of its own) and potentially to strive for first strike status (the ability to completely destroy an enemy's nuclear forces before they could retaliate). During the Cold War, policy and military theorists in nuclear-enabled countries worked out models of what sorts of policies could prevent one from ever being attacked by a nuclear weapon.
Different forms of nuclear weapons delivery (see below) allow for different types of nuclear strategy, primarily by making it difficult to defend against them and difficult to launch a pre-emptive strike against them. Sometimes this has meant keeping the weapon locations hidden, such as putting it on submarines or train cars whose locations are very hard for an enemy to track, and other times this means burying them in hardened bunkers. Other responses have included attempts to make it seem likely that the country could survive a nuclear attack, by using missile defense (to destroy the missiles before they land) or by means of civil defense (using early warning systems to evacuate citizens to a safe area before an attack). Note that weapons which are designed to threaten large populations or to generally deter attacks are known as strategic weapons. Weapons which are designed to actually be used on a battlefield in military situations are known as tactical weapons.
There are critics of the very idea of nuclear strategy for waging nuclear war who have suggested that a nuclear war between two nuclear powers would result in mutual annihilation. From this point of view, the significance of nuclear weapons is purely to deter war because any nuclear war would immediately escalate out of mutual distrust and fear, resulting in mutually assured destruction. This threat of national, if not global, destruction has been a strong motivation for anti-nuclear weapons activism.
Critics from the peace movement and within the military establishment have questioned the usefulness of such weapons in the current military climate. The use of (or threat of use of) such weapons would generally be contrary to the rules of international law applicable in armed conflict, according to an advisory opinion issued by the International Court of Justice in 1996.
Perhaps the most controversial idea in nuclear strategy is that nuclear proliferation would be desirable. This view argues that, unlike conventional weapons, nuclear weapons successfully deter all-out war between states, as they did during the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Political scientist Kenneth Waltz is the most prominent advocate of this argument.
It has been claimed that the threat of potentially suicidal terrorists possessing nuclear weapons (a form of
nuclear terrorism) complicates the decision process.
Mutually assured destruction may not be effective against an enemy who expects to die in a confrontation, as they may feel they will be rewarded in a religious
afterlife as
martyrs and would not therefore be deterred by a sense of self-preservation. Further, if the initial act is from rogue groups of individuals instead of a nation, there is no fixed nation or fixed military targets to retaliate against. It has been argued, especially after the
September 11, 2001 attacks, that this complication is the sign of the next age of nuclear strategy, distinct from the relative stability of the Cold War
